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🔹 Chapter 2: Liberalism – Summary 🔹
1. Definition and Origins
- The term “liberalism” comes from the Latin liber, meaning “free.”
- It emerged from the collapse of feudalism and the rise of capitalist society.
- Originally a radical force, it opposed absolute monarchy and aristocratic privilege.
2. Historical Overview
- 17th–18th centuries: Inspired by the Enlightenment; key revolutions (English, American, French) embedded liberal ideas.
- 19th century: Classical liberalism dominated, advocating laissez-faire capitalism.
- 20th century: Modern liberalism emerged in response to industrialization’s social inequalities.
3. Core Themes of Liberalism
- Individualism: The individual is the primary unit in society.
- Freedom: The central value, encompassing both negative (freedom from) and positive (freedom to) aspects.
- Reason: Belief that humans are rational beings capable of self-government.
- Justice: Emphasizes equal legal and political rights, and merit-based rewards.
- Toleration: Acceptance of diversity and difference in beliefs and lifestyles.
4. Types of Liberalism
Classical Liberalism:
- Emphasizes minimal state, laissez-faire economics, and individual rights.
- Key influences: Natural rights, Utilitarianism, Economic liberalism, Social Darwinism.
Modern Liberalism:
- Supports positive freedom, welfare state, and an enabling state.
- Advocates for economic and social intervention to empower individuals.
Liberal Democracy:
- Combines liberal individualism with democratic participation and constitutional limits.
5. The Future of Liberalism
- Optimism and Progressivism: Belief in inevitable progress through reason and freedom.
- Criticisms:
- Marxists: Protects capitalism and masks class inequality.
- Communitarians: Promotes an asocial view of the self.
- Feminists: Based on male norms.
- Conservatives: Encourages atomization and erodes tradition.
- Challenges: Rise of Authoritarianism and Illiberalism (e.g., from China, Russia, populism).
📘 Table of Major Authors in Chapter 2
| Author | Core Idea(s) | Key Work(s) |
|---|---|---|
| John Locke | Natural rights: life, liberty, property; social contract theory | Two Treatises of Government |
| Thomas Jefferson | Rights to “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness” | Declaration of Independence |
| Jeremy Bentham | Utilitarianism: greatest happiness principle | An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation |
| John Stuart Mill | Liberty, individuality, developmental democracy | On Liberty, The Subjection of Women |
| Adam Smith | Economic liberalism; free market capitalism | The Wealth of Nations |
| Herbert Spencer | Social Darwinism; survival of the fittest; minimal state | The Man vs. the State |
| William Sumner | US advocate of Social Darwinism | “The drunkard in the gutter...” speech |
| T.H. Green | Positive freedom; enabling state; ethical liberalism | Lectures at Oxford (no single definitive work) |
| L.T. Hobhouse | Social liberalism; justified state intervention | Liberalism |
| John Rawls | Justice as fairness; veil of ignorance; equality of opportunity | A Theory of Justice |
| Mary Wollstonecraft | Early feminist liberal; equality and education for women | A Vindication of the Rights of Woman |
| Betty Friedan | Feminist critique of liberal norms; gender equality | The Feminine Mystique |
| James Madison | Federalism, constitutional limits to protect liberty | Federalist Papers |