Contemporary Challenges in International Relations

In the 21st century, international relations are increasingly shaped by non-traditional security threats such as:

• International terrorism
• Climate change and environmental degradation
• Migration and refugee crises
• Human rights violations
• Poverty and global inequality

These issues dominate global agendas at bilateral, multilateral, and intergovernmental platforms.

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1. International Terrorism

Definition (UN)

Terrorism: Any criminal act intended to provoke a state of terror in the public, individuals, or groups for specific purposes—political, ideological, philosophical, etc.—and is unjustifiable under any circumstances.

Types of Terrorism

• Political Terrorism
  • → Goal: Seize political power through violence.
  • Example: PLO, IRA
• Ethnic Terrorism
  • → Goal: Ethnic dominance or autonomy.
  • Example: LTTE, Nazi Holocaust
• Religious Terrorism
  • → Goal: Protect or propagate religious ideology.
  • Example: Al Qaeda, ISIS, Taliban
• State Terrorism
  • → State-sponsored violence to silence opposition.
  • Example: Stalin’s USSR, Maoist China
• International Terrorism
  • → Transnational in nature and impact.
  • Example: 26/11 Mumbai attacks

Impacts

• Undermines sovereignty and global peace
• Risk of WMDs falling into terrorist hands
• Diplomatic fallout (e.g., India-Pakistan tensions)
• Spreads radical ideologies and extremism

Global Counter-Terrorism Initiatives

• UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006):
  • Four pillars:
    • Address root causes
    • Prevent & combat terrorism
    • Build national capacity
    • Ensure human rights & rule of law
• Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) – Proposed by India (1996); seeks universal definition of terrorism.
• Global Terrorism Index (GTI): India ranked 7th most terrorism-affected country.

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2. Climate Change & Environmental Concerns

Causes

• Industrialization + Urbanization + Globalization
• Emission of GHGs: CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CFCs
• Result: Global warming, sea-level rise, extreme weather events

Key International Treaties

• Stockholm Declaration (1972) – Led to creation of UNEP
• Vienna Convention (1985) & Montreal Protocol (1987) – Control ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
• Rio Earth Summit (1992) – Led to:
  • Rio Declaration (27 Principles)
  • Agenda 21 (Sustainable Development)
  • Forest Principles
  • Convention on Biological Diversity
  • UNFCCC
• Kyoto Protocol (1997; in effect 2005) – Legally binding emission cuts for developed nations; based on principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
• Paris Agreement (2016) – Under UNFCCC, aims to:
  • Limit global temperature rise below 2°C
  • Aim for 1.5°C
  • Strengthen climate resilience and adaptation

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3. Human Rights

Definition

Human rights are universal, inalienable rights guaranteed by law and custom, regardless of race, gender, religion, or nationality.

Sources of Modern Human Rights

• Magna Carta (1215)
• Petition of Rights (1628)
• US Constitution (1787)
• French Declaration (1789)
• US Bill of Rights (1791)

Three Generations of Human Rights

• First Generation – Civil & Political Rights (e.g., freedom of speech, right to vote)
• Second Generation – Economic & Social Rights (e.g., right to education, healthcare)
• Third Generation – Collective Rights (e.g., environmental rights, LGBTQ+ rights, cultural rights)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948)

• Adopted by UNGA; often called the “International Magna Carta”
• Contains 30 articles covering civil, political, economic, and cultural rights

Kofi Annan’s 2005 UN Report

• “In Larger Freedom” – Identified major human rights challenges:
  • Global inequality
  • Conflict
  • Discrimination
  • Weak democratic institutions

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4. Migration and Refugees

Migration

Movement from one region to another (internal or external), driven by:

• Conflict
• Climate change
• Economic opportunity
• Political or religious persecution

Refugees & Asylum Seekers

• Refugee: Granted legal status after successful asylum application
• Asylum Seeker: Person seeking international protection

Key Institutions & Legal Framework

• UNHCR (1950) – Protects and assists refugees; HQ in Geneva
• World Refugee Day: 20 June
• 1951 Refugee Convention & 1967 Protocol – Define refugee rights and state responsibilities
  • (India is not a signatory)

Contemporary Refugee Sources

• Syria, Afghanistan, Myanmar, South Sudan

New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants (2016)

• Adopted by UNGA to enhance refugee protection
• Led to:
  • Global Compact on Refugees
  • Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
• Introduced Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF)