UGC NET NOTES: Evolution of Public Administration

✅ UGC NET NOTES: Evolution of Public Administration

📌 1. Origin as a Discipline

Public Administration became an independent discipline in 1887.
Woodrow Wilson’s essay “The Study of Administration” (1887) marks its formal beginning.
Wilson advocated Politics-Administration Dichotomy.

📌 2. Woodrow Wilson’s 4 Stages of Development

Analytical Distinction of politics from administration
Concrete Separation between the two
Science of Management (focus on techniques)
Public Policy Orientation (administration as policy execution)

📌 3. 5 Phases of Evolution

🔹 Phase I: Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1887–1926)

Also known as Exploratory Period (1887–1910)
Aim: Separate administrative functions from political interference
Key Idea: Make administration neutral, efficient, and professional

🔹 Phase II: Principles of Administration (1927–1937)

Known as Golden Era of Public Administration
Emphasis on universal administrative principles
Key Figures: Luther Gulick (POSDCORB), Urwick, Fayol
Book: “Papers on the Science of Administration” (1937)

🔹 Phase III: Criticism & Challenges (1938–1950)

Herbert Simon criticized classical principles as proverbs
Introduction of scientific and behavioral approaches
Key Book: “Administrative Behavior” (1947)

🔹 Phase IV: Crisis of Identity (1950–1970)

Doubt over whether Public Admin is a science, art, or profession
Increasing interdisciplinary influences
Public Admin lost clear boundaries; crisis over methodology

🔹 Phase V: Independent Discipline (1970–Present)

Emergence of New Public Administration (NPA)
Shift towards equity, ethics, responsiveness
Recent trends: NPM, Good Governance, E-Governance

📌 4. Major Events / Conferences

Year	Event	Importance
1944	Urwick’s “Elements of Administration”	Systematized classical thought
1967	Philadelphia Conference	Precursor to New Public Admin
1968	Minnowbrook I Conference	Start of New Public Admin; led by Dwight Waldo
1971	Waldo’s “Public Administration in a Time of Turbulence”	Codified NPA ideas

📌 5. Key Thinkers & Contributions

Thinker	Contribution
Woodrow Wilson	Founder, politics-admin dichotomy
Luther Gulick	POSDCORB
Henri Fayol	14 principles of management
Herbert Simon	Logical positivism, decision-making model
Dwight Waldo	Value-laden Public Admin, NPA advocate

📌 6. Keywords for MCQs

“Exploratory Period” → 1887–1910
“Golden Era” → 1927–1937
“Administrative Behavior” → Herbert Simon (1947)
“Minnowbrook I” → 1968 → New Public Administration
“Turbulence Book” → Dwight Waldo (1971)

UGC NET NOTES: Key Management Theories

📘 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY – F.W. Taylor

Term Coined By: Louis Brandeis (1910)
Propounded By: Frederick Winslow Taylor – “Father of Scientific Management”
Also Known As: Taylorism

🎯 Core Theme

Management is a true science, governed by universal laws and principles.
Primary Goal: Increase efficiency through scientific methods. (Dec 2018)

💡 Mental Revolution

Emphasizes a change in attitude between management and workers.
Promotes cooperation and harmony over conflict. (June & March 2023)

🔑 Four Principles of Scientific Management

Develop a science for every job.
Scientifically select and train workers.
Cooperation between managers and workers.
Equal division of work and responsibility.

⚙️ Techniques of Scientific Management

Functional Foremanship: (June 2023)
- → Eight specialized supervisors (4 planning + 4 execution)
- → Rejects Unity of Command
Motion Study: (Dec 2023)
- → Identify and eliminate unnecessary motions.
Time Study: (Dec 2023)
- → Determine standard time for task completion.
Differential Piece Rate Plan: (Dec 2023)
- → Wages based on performance above/below standard.
Exception Principle:
- → Focuses managerial attention on significant deviations.

📚 Major Works of Taylor

A Piece Rate System (1895)
Shop Management (1903)
Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
Principles of Scientific Management (1911)

📕 BUREAUCRATIC THEORY – Max Weber

Term "Bureaucracy": Vincent de Gournay (1745)
Systematic Formulation: Max Weber – Introduced the "Ideal Type" bureaucracy (Dec 2023)

🧠 Types of Authority: (July 2018)

Traditional Authority
Charismatic Authority
Legal-Rational Authority

🏛️ Features of Ideal Bureaucracy

Formal hierarchy
Rule-based management
Division of labor
Merit-based advancement
Efficiency
Impersonality

⚖️ Control Mechanisms over Bureaucracy

Collegiality
Separation of powers
Amateur administration
Direct democracy
Representative bodies

📚 Major Works

The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947)
Economy and Society (1968)

📗 MANAGING CONFLICT – Mary Parker Follett

Known As: Bridge between Classical and Human Relations approach

🔥 Conflict as Constructive

Conflict is a normal organizational process, not warfare.
Advocated constructive conflict (2021–2023 shifts)

🛠️ Three Conflict Resolution Techniques

Domination – One side wins
Compromise – Mutual sacrifice
Integration – Win-win solution (Best method)

⚡ Concepts of Power

Power-over: Control over others
Power-with: Shared, cooperative empowerment

🔄 Principles of Coordination: (June 2023 Shift 2)

Direct Contact
Early Stages
Continuity
Reciprocity

📚 Major Works

The Speaker of the House of Representatives (1896)
The New State (1920)
Creative Experience (1924)
Dynamic Administration (1941)

📘 HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY – Elton Mayo

Origin: 1930s as a response to the classical approach
Known As: Father of Human Relations, used “clinical method”

🔍 Key Experiments: Hawthorne Studies (1924–32)

Illumination Experiment
Relay Assembly Test Room
Mass Interviewing Programme
Bank Wiring Observation Room
Personnel Counseling

🧠 Core Conclusions

Psychological and social factors influence performance.
Organization = a social system

👥 Key Elements

The Individual
Informal Organization
Participative Management
“Squealer”: One who informs against colleagues (Jan 2017)

📚 Major Works

The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933)
The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1945)
The Political Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1947)

📕 DECISION-MAKING THEORY – Herbert A. Simon

Criticized Classical Approach as vague “proverbs” (July 2018)
Defined Decision-Making as the optimum rational choice (Dec 2018)

⚙️ Three Stages of Decision-Making: (Dec 2023)

Intelligence – Identify decision problem
Design – Develop options
Choice – Select best course of action

🤖 Behavioral Model

Bounded Rationality – Humans make decisions within limits
Choose “satisficing” (good enough) options

📚 Major Works

Proverbs of Administration (1946)
Administrative Behavior (1947)

📗 COMMUNICATION – Chester I. Barnard

📌 Elements of Formal Organization: (June 2020)

Communication
Willingness to cooperate
Common purpose

🌿 Informal Organization

Emerges naturally within formal systems

✅ Acceptance Theory of Authority

A communication is accepted if:

Understood
Consistent with purpose
Compatible with personal interest
Physically and mentally able to comply

UGC NET NOTES: Ecological Approach & Rational Choice Theory

UGC NET NOTES: Ecological Approach and Related Administrative Theories

1. Ecological Approach (F.W. Riggs)

Focus: Interaction between administrative system and its environment.
Administration is an open system adapting to social, political, economic, and cultural contexts.
Emphasizes the dynamic relationship between administration and environment.
Administration cannot be understood in isolation from its societal context.
Major Work: The Ecology of Public Administration (1961).

2. Structural-Functional Approach (Dwight Waldo, 1955)

Builds on the ecological approach.
Views administration as a system of interrelated structures performing specific functions.
Explains social order and administrative efficiency through the functional interdependence of structures.
Emphasizes adaptation of administrative systems to environmental changes.

3. Ideal Models by F.W. Riggs

a) Agraria-Industria Model (1956)

Distinguishes two types of societies:
- Agraria: Societies dominated by agricultural institutions (traditional, rural).
- Industria: Societies dominated by industrial institutions (modern, urban).
Societies evolve from agraria to industria through transitional phase (Transitia).

b) Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model (1959)

Represents stages of development in societies:
- Fused Model: Underdeveloped societies with overlapping social roles and institutions.
- Prismatic Model: Transitional societies exhibiting heterogeneity, formalism, and overlapping.
- Diffracted Model: Developed societies with clear, specialized social roles and institutions.

c) Prismatic-Sala Model

Focus on administrative subsystem ("Sala") of prismatic societies.
Key features:
- Heterogeneity: Coexistence of diverse, often contradictory elements.
- Formalism: Presence of formal rules but irregular application.
- Overlapping: Conflicting and ambiguous roles and norms.

Change in Prismatic Societies

Exogenous change: External influences drive change.
Endogenous change: Internal social forces drive change.
Equigenetic change: Combination of both external and internal change.

Important Concepts

Social change in prismatic societies is often inconsistent, incomplete, and uneven.
Coexistence of modern and traditional institutions creates administrative challenges.
Urban-rural divide exemplifies prismatic society dynamics.
Structures in modern societies are functionally specific.

Major Works by Riggs

The Ecology of Public Administration (1961)
Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society (1964)

Rational Choice Theory (Public Choice Theory) — UGC Notes

Overview:

Also known as Public Choice Theory.
Emerged in late 1960s.
Chief proponent: Vincent Ostrom.
Advocates replacing traditional bureaucratic administration with democratic administration.

Core Assumptions:

Individuals are rational actors who perform cost-benefit analyses.
Individuals act out of self-interest.
Individuals have ordered preferences and seek to maximize utility.
Decisions are made based on rational evaluation of alternatives.

Key Features:

Emphasizes anti-bureaucratic approach.
Promotes institutional pluralism (multiple decision-making centers).
Encourages decentralization and popular participation in administration.
Applies economic logic to public service delivery and policy-making.
Focuses on diverse democratic decision-making centers rather than centralized authority.

Importance in Public Administration:

Aligns well with policy analysis and decision-making frameworks.
Helps identify optimal policies by evaluating alternatives and consequences.
Encourages transparency, efficiency, and accountability in governance.

Major Work:

The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Administration (1974) by Vincent Ostrom.

Management Theories: MBO and System Theory

🎯 Management By Objectives (MBO)

Overview:

Also called Management by Planning or Management by Results.
Popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954, especially in The Practice of Management.
Focus: Aligns individual employee goals with organizational goals.
Focuses more on results/outcomes than mere activities.

Key Features:

Clearly defines roles and responsibilities.
Simplifies plans for maximum effectiveness.
Guides employees to achieve targets within a set timeframe.
Encourages continuous monitoring, evaluation, feedback, and appraisal.

MBO Process:

Define organizational goals.
Define employee objectives aligned with these goals.
Monitor performance and progress regularly.
Conduct performance evaluations.
Provide feedback.
Conduct performance appraisals.

Drucker’s Management Philosophy Highlights:

Management = planning, organizing, directing, and controlling resources to achieve goals.
Advocated democratization of management — accessible to all, not just elites.
Saw management as an objective discipline, teachable and learnable.
Criticized the rigid mechanistic model; preferred flexible, adaptive, people-centered management.

Peter Drucker’s Six “Sins” of Non-Performance:

Dogmatism — inflexible beliefs blocking innovation.
Lofty objectives — unrealistic goals.
Doing too many things — lack of prioritization.
“Fat is beautiful” — overstaffing leads to inefficiency.
Failure to learn from experience.
Belief in immortality — clinging to obsolete policies/institutions.

Major Works of Peter Drucker:

The Practice of Management (1954)
The Landmarks of Tomorrow (1959)
The Effective Executive (1966)

🌐 System Theory

Definition:

A system is a set of interconnected parts forming a whole.
Consists of sub-systems.
Has a boundary interacting with the external environment (called supra-system).

Basic Components of a System:

Input
Process
Output
Feedback
Environment

Types of Systems:

Open Systems: interact with environment (e.g., social, biological systems).
Closed Systems: no interaction with environment (e.g., mechanical systems).

Application to Organizations:

Organizations are open social systems with multiple sub-systems.
Systems approach known as Modern Organization Theory (post-1950).
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy developed General Systems Theory.
M.P. Follett viewed organizations as social systems.
Chester Barnard described organizations as “cooperative social systems”.
Norbert Wiener pioneered cybernetics, emphasizing feedback.
Herbert Simon’s decision-making model is based on system theory.

Models of Organization:

Closed Model: Bureaucratic, hierarchical, formal, rational.
Open Model: Collegial, competitive, informal, natural.
Newer Tradition Model: Synthesis of closed and open (James D. Thompson).

UGC NET NOTES: Theories of Leadership & Motivation

💡 Theories of Leadership — The OG Playbook

Trait Theory (Great Man Theory):

Basically, some folks just got it in their DNA. Leadership is born, not made. If you’ve got the traits, you’re the leader. It’s old school but still gets cited. Like calling a CEO a “natural boss.”

Behavioral Theory:

Focuses on what leaders actually do — their actions, styles, how they lead the squad. It’s less about who you are, more about how you show up.

Situational Theory:

Leadership ain’t one-size-fits-all. It flexes with the situation — different vibes require different styles. A crisis? Autocratic style. A chill brainstorming session? Democratic.

M.P. Follett’s Leadership Types:

Leadership of position (power comes from your title)
Leadership of personality (people follow you ‘cause you’re charismatic)
Leadership of function (focused on getting the job done)

Chester Barnard:

Leadership is a cocktail of individual traits + followers + conditions. So, it’s not just you, it’s also who’s with you and the environment.

French & Raven’s Five Power Sources:

Coercive (Fear-based, “do it or else”)
Reward (Carrot, “do it and you get this”)
Legitimate (Authority granted by role)
Expert (You know your stuff, so people listen)
Referent (People follow you ‘cause they like you or identify with you)

Leadership Styles:

Autocratic: I call the shots, you follow.
Democratic: Let’s discuss and decide together.
Laissez-Faire: Do your thing, I’m chill.

George R. Terry’s Take:

Leadership is influencing people to strive willingly for mutual goals. Translation: leaders get people hyped to work toward the same target, not just boss them around.

Koontz and O’Donnell:

Leadership means getting subordinates to work with zeal and confidence. No half-hearted efforts allowed.

🌟 Theories of Motivation — Why People Do Stuff

Traditional Theory:

The classic “carrot and stick” — reward to motivate, punishment to control. Simple, maybe too simple. F.W. Taylor kicked this off.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

The OG pyramid of human needs:
1. Physiological (food, sleep)
2. Security (safety, job security)
3. Social (friends, belonging)
4. Esteem (respect, status)
5. Self-Actualization (personal growth, meaning)
The lower needs gotta be mostly met before the higher ones take over. You won’t be dreaming of self-actualization if you’re starving.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:

Two kinds of factors:
- Motivators (satisfiers): Achievement, recognition, responsibility — these push you to excel.
- Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers): Salary, policies, work conditions — bad hygiene kills motivation but good hygiene alone won’t motivate.
He even split people into hygiene seekers and motivation seekers—classic divide.

Douglas McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y:

Two mindsets about workers:
- Theory X: People hate work, avoid responsibility, need strict control, punishment-heavy.
- Theory Y: People want to work, take responsibility, need freedom, and thrive with positive reinforcement.
McGregor argues for Theory Y as the smarter, more future-ready approach. Treat people like adults, trust ‘em, and watch them crush their goals.